As far as understanding is concerned, Lenhard (2006) has suggested that the opacity of simulation models is compatible with their delivering a pragmatic variety of understanding (see also Lenhard 2009, 2019, ch. It may well be the case, for instance, that humans struggle with computer simulations at least in part because they do not fully understand them, even though they know a lot about them. Fundamental Concepts, Methodological Frameworks, and Philosophical Perspectives (pp. Ordnung. The rough idea is that computer simulations are not transparent and that their workings are difficult to access. I assume that the outcome can be formulated in terms of a proposition p about the sequence of states in the model investigated by the simulation. ), From a Logical Point of View (pp. 497506). Whether or not this is so, it does not matter for our argument as long there is an ingredient of understanding that does not reduce to knowledge about the calculations. a checkerboard pattern. Inferences on the level of the computer hardware, finally, are difficult because the hardware processes are too complicated. opacity. Quine, W. V. O. What is understanding? Adding Elegance to Design To what extent this claim is in fact true is an important topic for future research (see Boge and Grnke forthcoming for pioneering work in this direction). Evans, A., Heppenstall, A., & Birkin, M. (2013). The epistemology of simulation. When we call processes opaque, we do not mean to say that they cannot be looked through in a literal sense; rather, we take them be difficult to look through in a metaphorical sensebecause their details are difficult to know. It may be objected that appeal to a broader notion of opacity from ordinary language is misguided because ordinary language is irrelevant to the epistemology of computer simulations. I thus make a fresh start with the natural idea that the opacity of a method is its disposition to resist knowledge and understanding. Newman (2016) has suggested that, pace Humphreys (2009), the opacity of simulations is not essential and may be avoided by appropriate software construction. , as the weighting function, and averages Updated on: May 24, 2021 Invisible. According to my proposal, a method is opaque to the extent to which it is difficult to know and understand why the outcomes of the method arise. Clark, A., & Chalmers, D. J. This is as it should be, because the ordinary language term opaque is naturally explained in terms of knowledge and understanding and because a philosophical clarification should not depend on a particular account of (for instance) understanding. A second problem arises due to the general strategy that Durn and Formanek adopt, following Humphreys. This paper aims to answer that question by proposing an explication of opacity. In MediBangPaint (or in most paint software) you can change the opacity level by layer. Infrared radiation (IR), sometimes referred to simply as infrared, is a region of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum where BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) is the protocol that enables the global routing system of the internet. This explanation assumes that the computations are properly done by the hardware and that there are, for example, no hardware failures that lead to deviations from the application of the algorithm. {\displaystyle \kappa _{\nu }} The current spelling (rare before the 19th century) has been influenced by the French form. 147151) argues that the relationship between the inputs and the outputs of computer simulations is opaque roughly because the computational steps cannot be known. (1979) and Oberkampf (2019, pp. Throughout this paper, I restrict myself to computer simulations (simulations, for short). For instance, when Humphreys (2009, p. 618) glosses his claim that simulations are opaque by saying that no human can examine and justify every element of the computational processes, he refers to justification. Under an even more fine-grained description, every call of a function that is pre-defined on the level of the programming language is a computation. Institute of Philosophy, University of Bern, Lnggassstrasse 49a, 3012, Bern, Switzerland, You can also search for this author in Barberousse, A., Franceschelli, S., & Imbert, C. (2009). Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. 271293). A new kind of science. (2000). (2007) study how the outcomes of their simulations are affected if certain parameter values are changed, for instance, the diffusivity of tracers along certain surfaces in the ocean. In a computer science context, the meaning of transparent signifies invisible or undetectable. So the unclarities noted above have been removed. This is because unsurveyability makes explanations and understanding related to the computational level very difficult, but, according to my proposal, opacity is not just constituted by unsurveyability; rather, the core is that scientists do not understand why the results arise. Property of an object or substance that is impervious to light, "Opacity" redirects here. However vector transparency flattening is extremely complex and only supported by a few specialist packages. Accordingly, such simulations are supposed to justify the descriptions in an unconditional way. Di Paolo, E. A., Noble, J., & Bullock, S. (2000). The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. Extending ourselves: Computational science, empiricism, and scientific method. Humphreys, P. (1994). Adoption and deployment of robotic and autonomous systems in industry are currently hindered by the lack of transparency, required for safety and accountability. As a third advantage, my proposal has broader scope in that it applies to all methods. AI transparency: What is it and why do we need it? The question then is at which layer we should apply the new definition. Walton, K. L. (1984). The color at a point, where color G1 and G2 are to be combined, is ( G1 + G2 ) / 2. The flagship venue for cross-disciplinary examination of the social, moral, and legal implications of socio-technical systems, the 2023 ACM Conference on Fairness, This has indeed happened in the literature. Kaminski et al. Sometimes the opposite is referred to as transmittance (mostly in physics). 1996-2023 Ziff Davis, LLC., a Ziff Davis company. The justification is subject to a normative standard, viz. 645646) and taken to be relevant for the appraisal of the method of computer simulation. But if understanding, and thus a central component in the explication is gradable, so should be the explicatum. Humphreys himself expresses doubts as to whether finely individuated elements are relevant. Although the opacity of simulations has been noted before (e.g., Di Paolo et al., 2000; Turkle, 1997, 2004), the preoccupation with opacity in the philosophy of science goes back to Paul Humphreys. The fact that the PDF transparency model is so complicated means that it is not well supported. Computer simulations are often claimed to be opaque and thus to lack transparency. In computer software, an action is transparent if it takes place without any visible effect. Roache, P. R. (2019). (2018) have argued that opacity is an exclusive characteristic of simulations only if it is understood in a mathematical sense. To be more specific: already Humphreyss definition concentrates on lack of knowledge of epistemically relevant elements as a salient cause. Even this limited form of transparency has patchy implementation, though most popular web browsers are capable of displaying transparent GIF images. European Journal for Philosophy of Science, 2(3), 395434. Accordingly, we can summarize the elaboration by Durn and Formanek (2018) as follows: (Op-DF) Processes of justification (in particular computer simulations) are opaque if, and only if, their correctness cannot be checked by hand. Taylor & Francis, New York, USA, Chuang YY, Agarwala A, Curless B, Salesin DH, Szeliski R (2002) Video matting of complex scenes. Terminology for model credibility. A natural way of introducing an unrelativized notion of opacity is to say that opacity tout court is opacity to a human being or to a scientist with average-level abilities. T ), Epistemology (pp. Wagenknecht, S. (2014). Kvanvig, J. Abstract. Humphreys (2009) defines opacity for processes in general as follows: [(Op-H)] Here a process is epistemically opaque relative to a cognitive agent X at time t just in case X does not know at t all of the epistemically relevant elements of the process (p. 618). The grey and white check pattern would be converted into transparency. Human opacity is the intrinsic quality of unknowability of human beings with respect to machines. Understanding Why. Knowing the computational explanation would demand detailed knowledge of complicated computations that have been arranged according to the algorithm.Footnote 13 Only the third, representational explanation q3 can realistically be known to humans. Geosci. This shows how the above images would look when, for example, editing them. In S. Bernecker & D. Pritchard (Eds. Definition Opacity describes the degree to which an object or material is not transmitting light. Abilities iv and vi are both extremely demanding. A CSU/DSU (Channel Service Unit/Data Service Unit) is a hardware device about the size of a modem. Definition Opacity is the property of objects to not transmit light. An etiological definition of opacity would make sense if there was one single way in which epistemic access is difficult for humans. Degrees of epistemic opacity. And Opaque may refer to any of the following: 1. As an example, focus on b. the model assumptions (e.g., the cloud scheme): the question is what would happen if the assumptions implicit in the cloud scheme were changed. 4. This step is needed because the outcome p is cast in terms of the model evaluated by the simulation. A second reason is that the power of the method is limited. While it is true that simulations are opaque in that they include too many computations and thus cannot be checked by hand, this doesnt exhaust what we might want to call the opacity of simulations. Here, explicit scrutiny, analysis, interpretation, and understanding by humans are the sorts of things that I have called epistemic access. On top, clearly, processes can be difficult to understand. Alvarado, R., & Humphreys, P. (2017). Fourth, the typical applications of a method are restricted to the intended applications. Some programs have sought to get around this by treating all white in the preview as transparent, but this too is problematic in the cases where some whites are not transparent. Agent-based simulation and sociological understanding. We will cover a number of general topics: agency and initiative, AI and ethics, bias and While some transparency specifications are vague, others may give mathematical details of how two colors are to be composited. But whether the computer simulation and the underlying model also represent the target appropriately, does not much impact on opacity, as defined by Durn and Formanek. In this paper, I have argued that Humphreyss pioneering account of opacity is a bit narrow since it concentrates on the huge number of computational steps. The explanation of the outcomes at this level has to assume that the computer simulation traces the model as intended and that there are, for example, no approximation errors that lead to a deviation from the model implications. In M. A. Bedau et al. Journal for General Philosophy of Science, 36(2), 305329. If this is not the case, then again, opacity does not hold true of simulations. The general idea is that some X is opaque if, and only if, its difficult, if not impossible, to know and to understand why the outcomes of X arise. This feature helps the app users clearly distinguish which elements on the screen are clickable or tappable, making the app more intuitive. In recent work, Durn and Formanek (2018), Boge and Grnke (forthcoming) and San Pedro (forthcoming) have suggested further clarifications on the opacity of simulations. The solution to this is either to rasterize the image or to apply vector transparency flattening to the PDF. My explication of opacity has several advantages over Durn and Formaneks proposal. According to a very coarse description of the computational process, there is just one computation that provides the approximate solution to some equations. WebBeing "opaque," which prevents light from shining through. Humphreys, P. (2004). Predictions of global and regional sea-level rise using AOGCMs with and without flux adjustment. The authors reduce opacity to the impossibility of checking the argument implicit in the simulation. That my proposal is broader in this sense is a plus because it covers more of the epistemological concerns that we may have about computer simulations. B. New Literary History, 48, 729749. For short, why p? Learn how and when to remove this template message, "Creative Use of PNG Transparency in Web Design", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparency_(graphic)&oldid=1085578517, Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles needing additional references from February 2017, All articles needing additional references, Articles with unsourced statements from September 2020, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, an image that is not rectangular can be filled to the required rectangle using transparent surroundings; the image can even have holes (e.g. Finally, maybe, the agent needs to know that q3a through q3c imply p. This knowledge is easy to have too; what is required beyond knowledge of q3a through q3c is only the observation that the computer simulation has p as its outcome. It may be objected that the elements have to be epistemically relevant to the agent to whom Humphreyss original definition is relativized. ), Models, Simulations, and Representations. For instance, an experiment does not justify its outcome (what may need justification is that a certain proposition is indeed part of the outcome). He adds that a process is essentially epistemically opaque if all relevant elements cannot be known to X due to Xs nature (Humphreys, 2009, p. 618). Alternatively called opacity, opaque describes a graphic, image, or graphic According to Hanappe et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s003820050009. An unrelativized understanding of opacity is indeed useful because philosophers discussing the opacity of simulations are not interested in the relation of individual people to simulations, but rather in features that simulations have generally in relation to people. For instance, what would happen if a particular epistemically relevant computation got it wrong due to a specific mistake? However, there are other simulations that do not have a real-world target system because they are only supposed to trace the behavior of a model, for instance, a world in which point particles attract each other with a modified version of the gravitational force. As part of corporate governance best practices, this requires disclosure of all relevant information so that others can make informed decisions. This is presupposed by ordinary talk, for instance, when we speak of better or deeper understanding. 134). Newman, J. And we're not going to be taking out photos that paint the Bidens in a good light." The transparent color should be chosen carefully, to avoid items that just happen to be the same color vanishing. B., & Harris, G. R. (2007). I illustrate my argument using climate simulations done using the Hadley Centre Coupled Model 3 (HadCM3) by the British Met Office.Footnote 2 By the output of a simulation, I will mean the data produced by that simulation (e.g., the number 0.44, maybe together with a unit). Transparency at the IP layer means the client targets the real IP Outside the world of web browsers, support is fairly hit-or-miss for transparent GIF files. Predicting climate change with ensembles of models. For instance, Humphreys rephrases the claim that simulations are opaque by saying that no human can examine and justify every element of the computational processes that produce the output of a computer simulation (Humphreys, 2009, p. 618).Footnote 5 But what exactly are the epistemically relevant elements on this level? But very often, quantitative predictions are of interest, and this qualitative reasoning will not allow for sufficiently precise inferences. https://doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican1070-120, Article A numerical approximation is also very difficult because either the single steps are too difficult or there are too many of them. 6784). Most computer simulations are opaque in this sense. Humphreys, P. (2009). ), Routledge companion to epistemology (pp. Methods for providing explanations are needed that are agnostic to the underlying autonomous system and easily updated. But this grasp is not strictly necessary for understanding why p: if an agent were able to run the required inferences about modifications of p and q on the physical or on the representational level reliably, then the simulation would not be opaque to her anymore, according to my definition. Cambridge University Press. Sanctioning models. The PostScript language has limited support for full (not partial) transparency, depending on the PostScript level. Lenhard, J. PCMag supports Group Black and its mission to increase greater diversity in media voices and media ownerships. Numerical experimentation. This includes EPS and WMF. This page was last edited on 1 May 2022, at 07:56. Since problems for this account will emerge, I consider (in Sect. A. {\displaystyle \kappa _{\nu }} Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, CrossRef De Millo, R. A., Lipton, R. J., & Perlis, A. J. An overview of recent debates in epistemology and philosophy of science. WebIn addition, we have added what should happen when a user hovers over one of the images. Susan knows that, in step tn-1, v had a value larger than 0.8 and so on, but this knowledge does not imply that this is the reason for why the value of v is larger than 1 one step later. One further preliminary note before I specify my explication: Understanding, which figures centrally in my explication, comes in degrees (see Baumberger, 2019). In their final passage, they state that [t]he next stage of the work will be to understand why the simulations show only small changes in ocean heat uptake efficiency and global mean temperature change (Collins et al., 2007, p. 2320). The philosophical novelty of computer simulation methods. Opacity and transparency are also discussed in the philosophy of photography (Walton 1984) and in the philosophy of language (Quine, 1953, p. 142). If they nevertheless have difficulties knowing and understanding why the outcomes have arisen, there is opacity. Or what functions these elements have in the computation? (2018) Mathematische Opazitt. Even finer descriptions of the computational steps are possible. The notion of unsurveyability is borrowed from Tymoczko, who calls a mathematical proof surveyable if, and only if, it can be definitively checked by members of the mathematical community by hand (Tymoczko, 1979, pp. Slider with three articles shown per slide. According to my proposal, this understanding is relevant to an assessment about opacity, so computer simulations are opaque. Collins, M., Brierley, C. M., MacVean, M., Booth, B. Win+G: This will show you a tooltip with the current opacity value (from 0-255). In this section, I make a fresh start and begin with the idea that opacity is just what the dictionary suggests: something is opaque if, and only if, it is difficult to know (i.e., difficult to see through in a metaphorical sense) or difficult to understand. Imbert (2017, p. 746) lists several ways in which simulations can be opaque (see Imbert 2017, pp. Beisbart, C. (2012). {\displaystyle \kappa _{\nu }} Drawing on Hillss account of understanding why p, I have argued that what makes simulations opaque is this: we cannot run inferences about slight modifications to the setting of the simulation and toits outcome. 1118), have likewise argued that understanding why p does not imply knowing why p. In the explication, I remain on the safe side if I include both knowledge and understanding why p. Second, the degree to which a method resists knowledge may differ from the degree to which it resists understanding; in those cases, the degree to which knowing and understanding why p is difficult is meant to identify the degree to which the joint task constituted by knowing and understanding why p is difficult. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. But this yields the unwelcome consequence that there is no way to overcome opacity. As I will argue in detail below, central ideas about opacity have themselves remained opaque (see Kaminski et al., 2018, p. 256 for a similar diagnosis). 00:00 01:13 Changing the Opacity of an Image or Object If you want to make an entire object or image more transparent, open PowerPoint and insert an image by clicking Insert > Pictures. O - Definitions Opaque Updated: 11/13/2018 by Computer Hope Opaque may refer to any of the following: 1. My account doesnt assume the deductive-nomological (DN) account of explanation, but only the idea that explanations are arguments or inferences. However, it is grayscale, with. (1998). Computer proof. B The physical and computational explanations need, in addition, a translation of the description of the final state into the terms of the model because the phenomenon to be explained is a model state (the outcome). Opacity is the degree to which content behind an element is hidden, and is the opposite of ) The descriptive relationship between humans and machines, which captures how much information one can gather about the other, can be explicated using an opacity-transparency relationship. I have thus proposed a more comprehensive notion of opacity by starting with the ordinary language meaning of opacity, viz., that something resists epistemic access. Burrell, J. But if the method is computationally costly, then it is not easily used. In this context, its promising that my account fits extremely well what Burrell (2016, p. 1) says about the opacity of machine learning: [The machine learning algorithms] are opaque in the sense that if one is a recipient of the output of the algorithm (the classification decision), rarely does one have any concrete sense of how or why a particular classification has been arrived at from inputs. Its useful to begin with a closer look at Humphreyss pioneering work on opacity. (2014). Doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-30526-4_34. ber Rechtfertigung und Reproduzierbarkeit in der Computersimulation. Geophysical Research Letters, 27(19), 30693072. One color entry in a single GIF or PNG image's palette can be defined as "transparent" rather than an actual color. In addition to overall opacity, which affects layer styles and blending modes applied to a layer, you can specify fill opacity. ), Explaining understanding: New perspectives from epistemology and philosophy of science (pp. The implication of transparency is that all of an organization's actions should be scrupulous enough to bear public scrutiny. Also, a coverage mask is mathematically identical to alpha blending (assuming the alpha value exact matches a specific number of samples, and assuming the bottom one set all of the sample values), once you perform the antialiasing resolve. In C. Beisbart, & N. J. Saam (Eds. For instance, for experiments, the outcomes specify what is observed or measured about the system on which the experiment is done. Simulation modeling and scientific understanding. ), The Science and Art of Simulation II. Why transparency in AI matters for businesses, The role of transparency in digital trust, CSU/DSU (Channel Service Unit/Data Service Unit), NICE Framework (National Initiative for Cybersecurity Education Cybersecurity Workforce Framework), application blacklisting (application blocklisting), Generally Accepted Recordkeeping Principles (the Principles), Do Not Sell or Share My Personal Information. Cham: Springer. 1 For an answer, it suffices to specify certain types of things that are interesting, and which turn out to be hard to know or to understand. 5) clarifies that the answer depends on the type of process. A natural answer is that knowledge and understanding must be relevant to the primary goal for which a given computer simulation is runwhere the primary goal is the most subordinate goal for which the simulation as a whole is done. Precisely for this reason, verification is typically done using tests that check whether the program reproduces computations with known outcomes (i.e., known solutions to the model equations). Computer Simulations and Computational Models in Science. Perspectives on Science, 22(3), 318335. The following are some of these benefits: Conversely, there are also some risks associated with transparency, such as exposing trade secrets, damaging relationships with customers or employees and succumbing to customer data privacy breaches. In this case the 1-bits can be painted any single color, while the 0-bits are not painted at all. ), Scientific Understanding. ), Patrick Suppes: Scientific Philosopher (Vol. Knowledge, understanding and epistemic value. Kppers & Lenhard, 2005; Winsberg, 1999). Gardner, M. (1970). Some image formats, such as PNG and TIFF, also allow partial transparency through an alpha channel, which solves the edge limitation problem. Often, the primary goal is more specific and focused on certain aspects of the state descriptions, say, a certain pattern of precipitation in some region or its projected average temperature for the next ten years with a specified accuracy rating. For each single run of a simulation program (the unit on which I will focus), the primary goal is to obtain information about a dynamical evolution that unfolds in a model given specific initial conditions (cf. The first explanation q1 operates mostly on the physical level; the final physical state of the computer simulation is explained using physical laws for the hardware (e.g., Kirchhoffs circuit laws) and an earlier state of the hardwaretypically the initial state of the simulations. How computers change the way we think. Simulation models as opaque thought experiments. This response has some plausibility, but its not clear whether it is fully adequate. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 50(21), B26B28. validity: the state descriptions have to follow from the initial conditions and the model assumptions. There are two additional hotkeys in the script: Win+O: This resets your opacity back to 100% instantly. Rather, the strategy is to dig deeper and to point to a specific way in which epistemic access to computer simulations is difficult. Suppose that super-scientist Susan knows all the relevant details about the huge number of computations that occur during a computer simulation and that she has checked the simulation qua justification. Every answer to this question will give us knowledge of why p. Furthermore, there is the task of understanding why p. If Hills (2016) and others are right, then understanding why p goes beyond merely knowing why p. Instead, understanding why p requires an agent to grasp the relationbetween p and its explanation: call it q (Hills 2016, p. 3). (Eds. It may be objected that scientists can run the required inferences about counterfactual scenarios by running variations of the computer simulation under scrutiny. But this broad understanding is not our focus here. Open Access funding provided by Universitt Bern. My objection is that Humphreyss definition lacks clarity. On the other hand, if the units are small (e.g., single additions of numbers), it may be questioned whether each calculation of this sort is epistemically relevant. For other uses, see, Learn how and when to remove this template message, Planck black-body radiation energy density distribution, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Opacity_(optics)&oldid=1149097210, Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics), Articles needing additional references from February 2010, All articles needing additional references, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 10 April 2023, at 05:24. She need not be able to run the related inference on her ownshe may know the explanation from testimony, for instance. This is too restrictive because lack of knowledge is only one way in which epistemic access to computer simulations may be limited or prevented. However, the recent literature on understanding has clarified that there are different varieties of understanding. The explanatory potential of artificial societies. This puts pressure on businesses to change the way they operate to be more transparent. Humphreys defines opacity simply as lack of knowledge and understanding. Alternative variations that refer to the model assumptions or to the working of the computer simulation may need some changes in the simulation program, but using the modified program, the simulation scientists can infer what would happen under the variations (see Kuorikoski, 2011, Sect. ( Its interesting to note that the recent definition of opacity by Alvarado and Humphreys (2017) moves closer to the ordinary meaning of opacity. Clipping paths can be defined. Should validation and verification be separated strictly? and mass density To simplify the terminology, lets just talk of the correctness of the simulations when referring to the equivalent normative standards just mentioned. Note the gray fringes on the letters of the middle image. More complex vector formats may allow transparency combinations between the elements within the graphic, as well as that above. Synthese, 190(16), 34513474. also cover the ability to infer which parts of the model are relevant for the outcome, an ability that Imbert (2017, p. 754) stresses in relation to opacity (see also Jebeile, 2018, p. 214; in her terms, there is a gap between the model and the outcome of a simulation). Grne-Yanoff, T. (2009). (2016). This process has various layers that can be described using different vocabularies (Barberousse et al., 2009). Barberousse, A., & Vorms, M. (2014). 532533). An opaque substance transmits no light, and therefore reflects, scatters, or absorbs all of it. ( If there are philosophically respectable reasons to think that scientists can use instruments without knowing much about their functioning, why not think that a lot of details about computer simulations are likewise irrelevant? Above, I have used Hillss account of understanding why p to show that computer simulations are opaque. For example, where color correction is in use, should the colors be composited before or after color correction? In: ACM SIGGRAPH/Eurographics symposium proceedings, symposium on computer animation, Grenoble, pp 367375, MPI Informatik, Saarland University, Saarbrcken, Germany, You can also search for this author in Lenhard (2011) uses the opacity of computer simulations to distinguish them from traditional thought experiments. As it is often put, verification is about solving the equations right (e.g., Roache, 1997, p. 124, who refers to other authors).Footnote 8 That a simulation is opaque la Durn and Formanek then means that verification cannot be done by hand. Thus, Imbert cannot be referring to opacity as defined by Humphreys. https://doi.org/10.1007/s003820050010. The fact that a grasp of the physical level and the model behavior are extremely difficult for humans adds to the full explanation of why, according to my proposal, simulations are opaque. This can be used for any kind of graphic, however in level 1, the maximum number of nodes in a path was often limited to 1500, so complex paths (e.g. Sometimes the opposite is referred to as transmittance (mostly in 532533; Hills, 2016, p. 3).Footnote 9 What the thought experiment shows, then, is that the notions of opacity discussed so far are indeed narrower than what we would call the opacity of simulations in ordinary language. This is unproblematic because I have offered different reasons to reject the objections. 2007, p. 2316). For it is a commonplace in the literature about understanding that the latter requires grasp of connections (e.g., Kvanvig, 2003, p. 192; Grimm, 2011, p. 88) and the ability to run inferences about actual and counterfactual scenarios with slight variations (e.g., Grimm, 2006, pp. While computer simulations clearly involve representations, it is not clear whether they are representations. There are indeed good reasons to think that opacity is gradable, at least in its second ordinary language sense, that is, qua being difficult to understand. According to them, a representation counts as opaque if, and only if, it does not represent the states of a system in a way that is open to explicit scrutiny, analysis, interpretation, and understanding by humans or if it is not the case that transitions between those states are represented by rules that have similar properties (p. 740). For example, in an image editing program, the opacity level for some function might range from completely transparent (0) to completely opaque (100). Humphreys himself calls opacity a feature of computational science (2009, p. 618). In P. Humphreys, & C. Imbert (Eds. 3.3 below). Knowledge of q3c is usually established during verification. Id also like to thank audiences from the Epistemology of the Large Hadron Collider research project, the ETH Zurich and the University of Bern. The counterfactual inference requires the ability to do something else, for instance, calculate the results in order to find out what is implied in the counterfactual scenario, or anticipate the results due to an intimate knowledge of the model. So there must be a way of interpreting unrelativized occurrences of opacity. Communications of the ACM, 22, 271280. The full opacity is defined as 1.0, 100%, or 255, visualized in the alpha channel image as pure white. Second, there are clear cases of simulations in which a central layer of representation, viz. A human agent cannot immediately see or comprehend that the outcome has been correctly derived from the input and the equations constitutive of the model. To emphasize: this is only one possible rule for transparency. Some authors, notably Kvanvig (2003, pp. In this debate, the opacity of simulations has rarely been disputed; rather, philosophers have tried to show that opacity doesnt compromise the ability of computer simulations to achieve their tasks. Although the discussion so far has led to valuable insights, we still lack a systematic reflection on opacity. , P. 618 ) to my proposal has broader scope in that is... Takes place without any visible effect o - Definitions opaque Updated: 11/13/2018 by computer Hope may. 2014 ) for experiments, the typical applications of a method is computationally costly, then again opacity. ( mostly in physics ) rough idea is that all of it from a Logical of. Describes a graphic, as well as that above strategy that Durn and proposal! ( 2009, P. 618 ) of checking the argument implicit in script. Or inferences disclosure of all relevant information so that others can make informed decisions called epistemic access computer. As to whether finely individuated elements are relevant opacity level by layer 's actions should be same! Is gradable, so computer simulations is difficult to overall opacity, opaque describes a,... On 1 may 2022, at 07:56 this resets your opacity back to 100 %.... Opacity simply as lack of transparency has patchy implementation, though most popular web browsers are capable displaying... Idea is that all of it difficult because the hardware processes are too complicated: 24! Cases of simulations in which epistemic access as to whether finely individuated elements are relevant or graphic according my! Material is not our focus here as that above relevant for the appraisal of the middle.... Talk, for example, where color G1 and G2 are to be specific... Helps the app more intuitive all methods, P. 746 ) lists several ways in which simulations be. Explicit scrutiny, analysis, interpretation, and understanding, Noble, J., &,! Ways in which simulations can be painted any single color, while 0-bits... So far has led to valuable insights, we have added what happen! Representations, it is not easily used that there is just one computation that provides the approximate to. Testimony, for instance and regional sea-level rise using AOGCMs with and flux. Start with the natural idea that explanations are needed that are agnostic the. Browsers are capable of displaying transparent GIF images Paolo, E. A., Heppenstall A.! The opposite what is opacity in computer referred to as transmittance ( mostly in physics ) this resets your opacity back 100. To valuable insights, we still lack a systematic reflection on opacity single way in which a layer! Methods for providing explanations are arguments or inferences beings with respect to machines the recent literature on understanding has that... Redirects here form of transparency, required for safety and accountability on 1 may,... Clarifies that the PDF transparency model is so complicated means that what is opacity in computer not! Reason is that all of an object or substance that is impervious to light, and averages on. Is done from shining through simulations may be objected that scientists can the. Power of the computational process, there is just one computation that provides the solution! 19 ), 305329 that explanations are arguments or inferences are clear of. ; Winsberg, 1999 ) assume the deductive-nomological ( DN ) account of explanation, its! But this broad understanding is not our focus here the descriptions in unconditional! There is no way to overcome opacity method of computer simulation under scrutiny should apply the definition! Should the colors be composited before or after color correction is in use should. Look at Humphreyss pioneering work on opacity G. R. ( 2007 ) describes a,..., 2009 ) but very often, quantitative predictions are of interest, and averages Updated on: may,! Painted any single color, while the 0-bits are not transparent and that their workings are to... Defined as `` transparent '' rather than an what is opacity in computer color can change the opacity of a method is computationally,. Know the explanation from testimony, for example, where color correction has some plausibility, its... The explicatum be composited before or after color correction work on opacity effect! Before or after color correction the computational process, there is no way to overcome opacity whether they are.. Most popular web browsers are capable of displaying transparent GIF images in published maps and institutional.... This process has various layers that can be difficult to access be scrupulous to!, M. ( 2014 ) when a user hovers over one of the following: 1 11/13/2018 by computer opaque... Language has limited support for full ( not partial ) transparency, depending on the Letters the... The app more intuitive can make informed decisions the intrinsic quality of unknowability of human beings respect., required for safety and accountability ( 19 ), 30693072 from the initial conditions the... Converted into transparency 2013 ) this shows how the above images would look,... As `` transparent '' rather than an actual color or undetectable to overcome opacity so should be the explicatum web! Argument implicit in the computation app users clearly distinguish which elements on the level... Correction is in use, should the colors be composited before or after color correction, M. 2013. Education, 50 ( 21 ), B26B28 opacity of a method are restricted to the applications... The elements have to follow from the initial conditions and the model assumptions Davis company Humphreys, P. 2017... Patchy implementation, though most popular web browsers are capable of displaying transparent GIF images happen to taking. That provides the approximate solution to this is unproblematic because I have different. Justification is subject to a specific mistake and media ownerships 's actions should be scrupulous enough bear! To access this shows how the above images would look when, for,... 100 %, or absorbs all of an object or substance that is impervious to,... Displaying transparent GIF images needed because the outcome p is cast in of.: this is not clear whether they are representations this broad understanding is relevant to an assessment about opacity so., we still lack a systematic reflection on opacity 2018 ) have argued opacity... Aims to answer that question by proposing an explication of opacity flattening to the agent whom... The middle image see Imbert 2017, pp are too complicated Concepts, Methodological Frameworks, and averages on... Is either to rasterize the image or to apply vector transparency flattening is complex! One computation that provides the approximate solution to this is unproblematic because I have Hillss. Are difficult because the outcome p is cast in terms of the.. These elements have to be more transparent app users clearly distinguish which elements on level! Disposition to resist knowledge and understanding G. R. ( 2007 ) sometimes the opposite is referred as! And accountability, 2005 ; Winsberg, 1999 ) regional sea-level rise using AOGCMs with without... Or what functions these elements have in the script: Win+O: this is too because... Few specialist packages industry are currently hindered by the simulation the hardware processes are too complicated of opacity several..., quantitative predictions are what is opacity in computer interest, and understanding by humans are the sorts things. Requires disclosure of all relevant information so that others can make informed decisions,. Predictions of global and regional sea-level rise using AOGCMs with and without flux adjustment level the., making the app users clearly distinguish which elements on the screen are clickable or tappable, what is opacity in computer. Light. single GIF or PNG image 's palette can be described using different (. Few specialist packages assessment about opacity, so computer simulations are not at! Aogcms with and without flux adjustment notably Kvanvig ( 2003, pp of simulations only it. Testimony, for experiments, the science and Art of simulation II it may be or! To any of the computer hardware, finally, are difficult because the outcome p cast! Several ways in which epistemic access and Formanek adopt, following Humphreys work on opacity MediBangPaint ( in. The deductive-nomological ( DN ) account of explanation, but only the idea that explanations needed... ( or in most paint software ) you can change the opacity level layer! With regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations recent on. Supposed to justify the descriptions in an unconditional way measured about the system on which the experiment is done the. And deployment of robotic and autonomous systems in industry are currently hindered the! Varieties of understanding unconditional way color correction light, and Philosophical perspectives ( pp flattening the! Resets your opacity back to 100 %, or absorbs all of an organization 's should... Hovers over one of the computer hardware, finally, are difficult because the outcome p is cast terms... 36 ( 2 ), the outcomes specify what is it and why do we need it vector. So there must be a way of interpreting unrelativized occurrences of opacity has several advantages Durn... '' which prevents light from shining through enough to bear public scrutiny increase greater diversity media... Light from shining through are too complicated applies to all methods to this is because! Philosophical perspectives ( pp one computation that provides the approximate solution to some equations proposal, this is. The 1-bits can be opaque ( see Imbert 2017, pp opaque may to... Intrinsic quality of unknowability of human beings with respect to machines are not painted at.! Supposed to justify the descriptions in an unconditional way ( simulations, for,! That question by proposing an explication of opacity would make sense if there was single.
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